Can Cyprus Afford Luspatercept? A Budget Impact Analysis of the Reimbursement of Luspatercept for the Management of Thalassaemia in Cyprus.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to estimate the budget impact of luspatercept reimbursement as an adjuvant to the standard management of ß-thalassaemia major in Cyprus, from a societal perspective, and assess the financial feasibility of its inclusion in the ß-thalassaemia armamentarium. METHODS: A 5-year horizon budget impact model was developed to determine the budget impact of reimbursing luspatercept for the management of ß-thalassaemia major in Cyprus. Two treatment discontinuation scenarios were elaborated. In the first scenario, luspatercept is reimbursed complementary to best supportive care, and a dropout rate of 40% is assumed based on published real-world data, while for the second scenario a dropout rate of 25%, is assumed as per the clinical trial data. Input parameters were retrieved from the phase III clinical trial of luspatercept, literature, and expert opinion consensus. One-way sensitivity analyses were conducted for both scenarios. RESULTS: The addition of luspatercept to the standard management of ß-thalassaemia major in Cyprus imparted an incremental budget impact ranging from €21,300,643 to €25,834,368, depending on the drop-out rate scenario assumed. Results were sensitive to the number of eligible patients and dose per patient. CONCLUSION: The potential reimbursement of luspatercept will wield a substantial impact on Cyprus total pharmaceutical expenditure and it is therefore imperative to affix a reimbursement framework that will allow the payer to mitigate uncertainty stemming out of the scarce clinical data and the inherently complex therapeutic landscape of ß-thalassemia management.

Model and Empirical Data-Based Cost-Utility Studies of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Individuals with Type 1 Diabetes: A Protocol of a Systematic Review on Methodology and Quality.

INTRODUCTION: This review aims to critically appraise differences in methodology and quality of model-based and empirical-data-based cost-utility studies to address key limitations, opportunities, and challenges to inform future cost-utility analyses of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) in type 1 diabetes. This protocol is registered at PROSPERO (CRD42023391284). METHODS: The review will be conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guideline for systematic reviews. Searches will be conducted in MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Econlit from 2000 to January 2023. Model and empirical data-based studies evaluating the cost-utility of any CGM system in type 1 diabetes will be considered for inclusion. Studies that only report on cost per life year or any other clinical outcome, or reporting only costs or only clinical outcomes studies in type 2 diabetes populations, and studies on bi-hormonal closed loops and do-it-yourself hybrid closed loop devices will be excluded. Two reviewers will independently screen each study for inclusion. Data on the intervention, population, model settings (such as perspective, time horizon), model type and structure, clinical outcomes used to populate the model, validation, and uncertainty will be extracted and qualitatively synthesised. Quality will be assessed using the Philips et al. 2006 (model-based studies) or Consensus Health Economic Criteria (empirical data-based studies) checklists. Model validation will be assessed using the AdViSHE checklist. DISCUSSION: Now that CGM is being used more broadly in practice, critical appraisal of existing cost-utility methodology and quality is important to inform future cost-utility analyses of CGM in type 1 diabetes in various settings.

Clinical pharmacy services for tuberculosis management: a systematic review.

Objective: This study aims to systematically review the content and potential effects of clinical pharmacy services in tuberculosis (TB) care management. Methods: Searches were performed in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Scopus, and Web of Science databases following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Study characteristics and outcomes were extracted, and clinical pharmacy service components were characterized using the Descriptive Elements of Pharmacist Intervention Characterization Tool. Results: Twenty articles were included for full-text assessment, of which 10 fulfilled inclusion criteria, comprising 1,168 patients (N = 39 to 258 per study). These articles included five prospective cohort studies, two case-control studies, two quasi-experimental studies, and one cross-sectional study. Intervention foci within clinical pharmacy services were medication adherence (50%), medication safety (40%), education to patients/caregivers regarding needs/beliefs (30%), optimizing medication/therapy effectiveness (30%), emphasizing HRQoL (10%), and drug selections (10%). The three most frequently applied interventions were drug information/patient counseling (80%), adverse drug reaction monitoring (50%), and drug use evaluation (20%). Based on the World Health Organization (WHO) outcome classification, treatment success ranged from 72% to 93%, with higher cure outcomes (53%-86%) than treatment completion (7%-19%). Other outcomes, including isoniazid metabolites, medication counts, sputum conversion, adherence/compliance, knowledge, and quality of life, were better in the intervention group than those in comparator groups, and/or they improved over time. Risk of bias analysis indicated that the included studies were not comparable to a randomized clinical trial. Conclusion: Clinical pharmacy services as single or composite interventions potentially improve TB outcomes, but its evidence is still inconsistent and limited due to the lack of randomized controlled studies using the WHO outcome classification. Systematic review registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=199028, identifier CRD42020199028.

Implementing a Managed Entry Agreement Framework in Cyprus.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study is to explore the current practice in Cyprus regarding the introduction and reimbursement of innovative pharmaceuticals through Managed Entry Agreements (MEA), assess its operational context, and suggest approaches toward spanning the knowledge gap consequential to these efforts, especially the barriers of a small country context. AREAS COVERED: The recent introduction of a National Health System (NHS), brought about fundamental reforms in Cyprus' Healthcare sector. Among such reforms, of particular interest, has been the introduction of a Managed Entry Agreements (MEA) mechanism. The first preliminary results indicate that despite being a small and unattractive market, Cyprus can apply a substantial MEA program. Concomitantly, it annotates the need to design an operational framework which should include, the definition of important technical parameters, clear demarcation of the scope, cooperation principles ensuring the effective operation of scientific committees, and clear delineation of what 'value' is. Moreover, in the context of the unified healthcare market, budget transfers should be considered, which could alleviate the inordinate budget impact of new products, which nevertheless will cut down on hospital expenditures. Narrative synthesis and health policy analysis-related resources were used. EXPERT OPINION: The implementation of MEA in Cyprus provides an ideal testing ground for innovative reimbursement approaches. This will streamline the country's efforts toward reimbursement of innovation, while concomitantly add to the collective MEA experience.

Cost-effectiveness of ravulizumab compared with eculizumab for the treatment of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria in the Netherlands.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of ravulizumab compared with eculizumab for the treatment of adult patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) in the Netherlands. METHODS: A cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted based on a Markov cohort model simulating the course of patients with PNH with clinical symptom(s) indicative of high disease activity, or who are clinically stable after having been treated with eculizumab for at least the past six months. Costs, quality of life, and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) were estimated over a lifetime horizon from a Dutch societal perspective. Several additional analyses were performed, including a one-way sensitivity analysis, a probabilistic sensitivity analysis, and scenario analysis. RESULTS: When compared with eculizumab, ravulizumab saves €266,833 and 1.57 quality adjusted life years (QALYs) are gained, resulting in a dominant ICER. Drug costs account for the majority of the total costs in both intervention groups. Cost savings were driven by the difference in total treatment costs of ravulizumab compared with eculizumab caused by the reduced administration frequency, accounting for 98% of the total cost savings. The QALY gain with ravulizumab is largely attributable to the improved quality of life associated with less frequent infusions and BTH events. At a willingness-to-pay threshold of €20,000/QALY, there is a 76.6% probability that ravulizumab would be cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: The cost reduction and QALY gain associated with the lower rates of BTH and less frequent administration make ravulizumab a cost-saving and clinically beneficial substitute for eculizumab for adults with PNH in the Netherlands.

Health-economic evaluation of meniscus tear treatments: a systematic review.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the overall evidence of published health-economic evaluation studies on meniscus tear treatment. METHODS: Our systematic review focuses on health-economic evaluation studies of meniscus tear treatment interventions found in PubMed and Embase databases. A qualitative, descriptive approach was used to analyze the studies' results and systematically report them following PRISMA guidelines. The health-economic evaluation method for each included study was categorized following one of the four approaches: partial economic evaluation (PEE), cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), cost-benefit analysis (CBA), or cost-utility analysis (CUA). The quality of each included study was assessed using the Consensus on Health Economic Criteria (CHEC) list. Comparisons of input variables and outcomes were made, if applicable. RESULTS: Sixteen studies were included; of these, six studies performed PEE, seven studies CUA, two studies CEA, and one study combined CBA, CUA, and CEA. The following economic comparisons were analyzed and showed the respective comparative outcomes: (1) meniscus repair was more cost-effective than arthroscopic partial meniscectomy (meniscectomy) for reparable meniscus tear; (2) non-operative treatment or physical therapy was less costly than meniscectomy for degenerative meniscus tear; (3) physical therapy with delayed meniscectomy was more cost-effective than early meniscectomy for meniscus tear with knee osteoarthritis; (4) meniscectomy without physical therapy was less costly than meniscectomy with physical therapy; (5) meniscectomy was more cost-effective than either meniscus allograft transplantation or meniscus scaffold procedure; (6) the conventional arthroscopic instrument cost was lower than laser-assisted arthroscopy in meniscectomy procedures. CONCLUSION: Results from this review suggest that meniscus repair is the most cost-effective intervention for reparable meniscus tears. Physical therapy followed by delayed meniscectomy is the most cost-effective intervention for degenerative meniscus tears. Meniscus scaffold should be avoided, especially when implemented on a large scale. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Systematic review of level IV studies.

"Cost-effectiveness of ACL treatment is dependent on age and activity level: a systematic review".

PURPOSE: To systematically review the literature on health-economic evaluations of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury between reconstruction surgery (ACLR) and non-operative treatment (NO) and suggest the most cost-effective strategy between the two. METHODS: All economic studies related to ACLR versus NO post-ACL injury, either trial based or model based, published until April 2022, were identified using PubMed and Embase. The methodology of the health-economic analysis for each included study was categorized according to the four approaches: cost-minimization analysis (CMA), cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), cost-benefit analysis (CBA), and cost-utility analysis (CUA). The quality of each included study was assessed using the Consensus on Health Economic Criteria (CHEC) list. RESULTS: Of the seven included studies, two compared the strategies of early ACLR and NO alone, and five compared early ACLR and NO with optional delayed ACLR. All studies performed a CUA, and one study performed a CBA additionally. The CHEC scores of the included studies can be considered good, ranging from 15 to 18 from a maximum of 19. Applying the common standard threshold of $50,000 per QALY, six studies in young people with high-activity levels or athletes showed that early ACLR would be preferred over either NO alone or delayed ACLR. Of six studies, two even showed early ACLR to be the dominant strategy over either NO alone or delayed ACLR, with per-patient cost savings of $5,164 and $1,803 and incremental per-patient QALY gains of 0.18 and 0.28, respectively. The one study in the middle-aged people with a moderate activity level showed that early ACLR was not more cost-effective than delayed ACLR, with ICER $101,939/QALY using the societal perspective and ICER $63,188/QALY using the healthcare system perspective. CONCLUSION: Early ACLR is likely the more cost-effective strategy for ACL injury cases in athletes and young populations with high-activity levels. On the other hand, non-operative treatment with optional delayed ACLR may be the more cost-effective strategy in the middle age population with moderate activity levels. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Systematic review of level III studies.

Exploratory Analysis of the Economically Justifiable Price of a Hypothetical RSV Vaccine for Older Adults in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: In older adults, the burden of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) resembles that of influenza and may even be considered worse due to the lack of preventive interventions. This study was performed to identify the available literature on RSV infection in older adults, and to provide updated exploratory results of the cost-effectiveness of a hypothetical RSV vaccine in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. METHODS: A literature search was performed in Medline and EMBASE on 11 November 2019, which served as input for a static decision-tree model that was used to estimate the EJP, for an RSV vaccine applying different willingness-to-pay (WTP) thresholds. WTP thresholds applied were €20 000 and €50 000 per quality-adjusted life-year for the Netherlands, and £20 000 and £30 000 per quality-adjusted life-year for the United Kingdom. Analyses were-in line with country-specific guidelines-conducted from a societal perspective for the Netherlands and a third-party payer perspective for the United Kingdom. The robustness of the cost-effectiveness results was tested in sensitivity analysis. RESULTS: After screening the literature, 3 studies for the Netherlands and 6 for the United Kingdom remained to populate the country-specific models. In the base case analysis for the Netherlands (mean RSV incidence, 3.32%), justifiable vaccine prices of €16.38 and €50.03 were found, based on applying the lower and higher WTP thresholds, respectively. Similarly, for the United Kingdom (mean incidence, 7.13%), vaccine prices of £72.29 and £109.74 were found, respectively. CONCLUSION: RSV vaccination may well be cost-effective in both the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, depending on the exact RSV incidence, vaccine effectiveness and price. However, sensitivity analysis showed that the results were robust based on varying the different parameter estimates and assumptions. With RSV vaccines reaching the final stages of development, a strong need exists for cost-effectiveness studies to understand economically justifiable pricing of the vaccine.

Cost-minimisation analysis of a treat-and-extend regimen with anti-VEGFs in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration.

PURPOSE: Although intraocular anti-vascular endothelial growth factors (anti-VEGFs) are effective as treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD), the (economic) burden on the healthcare system is considerable. A treat-and-extend (T&E) regimen is associated with a lower number of injections without compromising the effectiveness and can therefore help optimise nAMD treatment. This study investigates the per-patient costs associated with nAMD treatment, when using aflibercept, bevacizumab, or ranibizumab with a T&E regimen. METHODS: In this cost-minimisation model, the per-patient costs in the Netherlands were modelled using a healthcare payers' perspective over a 3-year time horizon with the assumption that efficacy of treatments is similar. Additionally, the break-even price of the different anti-VEGFs was calculated relative to the cheapest option and injection frequency. RESULTS: The injection frequency varied from 14.2 for aflibercept to 27.4 for bevacizumab in 3 years. Nonetheless, bevacizumab remains the cheapest treatment option (€14,215), followed by aflibercept (€18,202) and ranibizumab (€31,048). The medication covers the majority of the per-patient costs for aflibercept and ranibizumab, while administration covers the majority of the per-patient costs for bevacizumab. The break-even prices of aflibercept and ranibizumab are respectively €507 and €60.58 per injection. Brolucizumab was included in the scenario analysis and was more expensive than aflibercept (€20,446). Brolucizumab should reduce to 13.8 injections over 3 years to be as costly as aflibercept. CONCLUSION: Bevacizumab is the cheapest anti-VEGF treatment. The list prices of all anti-VEGFs should reduce to be as costly as bevacizumab. Aflibercept is the second-choice treatment and so far brolucizumab is not.

Screening for Atrial Fibrillation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Health Economic Evaluation to Assess the Feasibility in Nigeria.

Background: Cardiovascular disease reflects a major burden of non-communicable disease in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Early detection and treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF), as a preventive measure against stroke, is currently not in the scope of the World Health Organization recommendation to reduce cardiovascular disease. Objective: We hypothesized that screening for AF would be an important approach to determine the true AF prevalence in the general population in African countries and to identify asymptomatic AF patients at risk for stroke to optimize prevention. Methods: A decision analytic model was developed to study the health-economic impact of AF screening in Nigeria over a life-time horizon. The patient population explored in the model was a population of newly detected AF cases that would be diagnosed with a one-time systematic screening for AF with a single lead ECG device in community health centres across Nigeria. Conclusions: The health gain per newly detected AF patient (N = 31,687) was 0.41 QALY at a cost of $5,205 per patient with 100% NOAC use, leading to an ICER of $12,587 per QALY gained. The intervention was cost-effective with a 99.9% warfarin use with an ICER of $1,363 per QALY gained. The total cost of a single screening session was $7.3 million for the total screened population in Nigeria or $1.60 per patient screened. Screening for AF to detect AF patients in need for stroke prevention can be a cost-effective intervention in the Sub-Saharan region, depending on type of anticoagulant used and drug costs.

Cost-Effectiveness of Bosutinib for the Treatment of Adult Patients with Chronic Phase Chronic Myeloid Leukemia in the Second-Line Setting.

BACKGROUND: A recently conducted matching-adjusted indirect comparison demonstrated that bosutinib improved progression-free survival, and delayed progression to advanced disease compared with dasatinib and nilotinib in patients with second line (2L) chronic-phase chronic myeloid leukemia (CP-CML). However, the long-term clinical and economic impact of using bosutinib versus dasatinib and nilotinib has not been evaluated. The objective was to determine the cost-effectiveness of bosutinib compared with dasatinib and bosutinib compared with nilotinib from a US payer perspective. METHODS: A cost-effectiveness model was developed using partition survival methods and three health states: progression-free, progression, and death. Trial data (individual patient-level and aggregate-level data) informed the progression-free and overall survival estimates. Costs included drugs and medical resource use. Utility values were obtained from literature. Sensitivity analyses (SAs) included one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses (PSAs). RESULTS: Comparing bosutinib versus dasatinib resulted in a gain of 0.4 discounted life years, 1.5 quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), and incremental costs of $28,459 (values in 2020 US dollars), for an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $19,811/QALY gained. Comparing bosutinib versus nilotinib resulted in a gain of 0.8 discounted life-years, 1.8 QALYs, and incremental costs of $76,563, for an ICER of $41,932/QALY gained. Drug costs and extrapolation distribution type were the main drivers of the model in the one-way SAs. In the PSAs, bosutinib had >90% and >80% probabilities of being cost-effective at a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000/QALY versus dasatinib and nilotinib, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that compared with dasatinib and nilotinib, bosutinib may represent good value for money for treating 2L CP-CML patients.

Cost-effectiveness analysis on elderly pneumococcal vaccination in the Netherlands: Challenging the Dutch Health Council's advice.

Recently, the Dutch Health Council advised on elderly pneumococcal vaccination favouring the conventional polysaccharide vaccine over the novel conjugated vaccine. This advice was strongly inspired by a cost-effectiveness analysis considered to show favourable outcomes for the polysaccharide but not for the conjugated vaccine. We argue that using the same data and methods as presented by the Health Council, a different perspective on the results leads to a conclusion that not only the polysaccharide but also the conjugated pneumococcal vaccine is cost-effective. Our alternative perspective concerns the use of realistic vaccine prices, and applying an adequate time horizon for cost-effectiveness modelling. Notably, for one-off vaccination of 65-years old elderly, in all investigated analyses, also the conjugated vaccine seems cost-effective; i.e. well below the threshold of €20,000 per quality-adjusted life year, reflecting the most stringent threshold used for vaccines in the Netherlands.

A Cost Minimization Analysis of Ready-to-Administer Prefilled Sterilized Syringes in a Dutch Hospital.

PURPOSE: Preparation errors occur frequently during conventional preparation of parenteral medication in the clinical environment, causing patient harm and costs for the national health care system. The use of ready-to-administer prefilled sterilized syringes (PFSSs) produced by the hospital pharmacy can reduce preparation errors and the risk of bacteremia from contamination of the intravenous medication. The aim of this research is to compare the total costs of the conventional preparation method (CPM) with the PFSS method. METHODS: In this cost-minimization analysis, costs related to the preparation of the medication, bacteremia from contamination, adverse drug events as a result of preparation medication errors, and wastage of syringes were taken into account. Annual costs in a general Dutch hospital were consistently calculated. Three scenarios were analyzed: (1) all preparations as CPM (864,246 administrations per year), (2) all preparations as PFSSs, and (3) 50% as PFSSs and 50% as CPM. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed. FINDINGS: The first scenario found higher annual costs at €14.0 million (US$16.0 million) compared with the second scenario (€4.1 million, US$4.7 million). The most realistic situation (third scenario) found savings of €4.9 million (US$5.6 million) compared with the first scenario. Sensitivity analyses revealed that cost savings of PFSSs were strongly influenced by decreased risk of medication errors and contamination of intravenous medication. Extrapolating these results nationwide indicated potential savings of >€300 million (US$342 million) if only PFSSs were used. IMPLICATIONS: The use of PFSSs prepared in the hospital pharmacy yielded cost savings compared with the CPM on the ward in the Dutch hospital.

HIV care cost in England: a cross-sectional analysis of antiretroviral treatment and the impact of generic introduction.

OBJECTIVES: Reliable and timely HIV care cost estimates are important for policy option appraisals of HIV treatment and prevention strategies. As HIV clinical management and outcomes have changed, we aimed to update profiles of antiretroviral (ARV) usage pattern, patent/market exclusivity details and management costs in adults (≥ 18 years old) accessing HIV specialist care in England. METHODS: The data reported quarterly to the HIV and AIDS Reporting System in England was used to identify ARV usage pattern, and were combined with British National Formulary (BNF) prices, non-ARV care costs and patent/market exclusivity information to generate average survival-adjusted lifetime care costs. The cumulative budget impact from 2018 to the year in which all current ARVs were expected to lose market exclusivity was calculated for a hypothetical 85 000 (± 5000) person cohort, which provided an illustration of potential financial savings afforded by bioequivalent generic switches. Price scenarios explored BNF70 (September 2015) prices and generics at 10/20/30/50% of proprietary prices. The analyses took National Health Service (NHS) England's perspective (as the payer), and results are presented in 2016/2017 British pounds. RESULTS: By 2033, most currently available ARVs would lose market exclusivity; that is, generics could be available. Average per person lifetime HIV cost was ~£200 000 (3.5% annual discount) or ~£400 000 (undiscounted), reducing to ~£70 000 (3.5% annual discount; ~£120 000 undiscounted) with the use of generics (assuming that generics cost 10% of proprietary prices). The cumulative budget to cover 85 000 (± 5000) persons for 16 years (2018-2033) was £10.5 (± 0.6) billion, reducing to £3.6 (± 0.2) billion with the use of generics. CONCLUSIONS: HIV management costs are high but financial efficiency could be improved by optimizing generic use for treatment and prevention to mitigate the high cost of lifelong HIV treatment. Earlier implementation of generics as they become available offers the potential to maximize the scale of the financial savings.

Cost-effectiveness of a potential anti-tick vaccine with combined protection against Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis in Slovenia.

This study assessed cost-effectiveness of a potential anti-tick vaccine that would protect against both Lyme borreliosis (LB) and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) in a highly endemic setting of Slovenia. A Markov model was developed to estimate cost-effectiveness of a vaccine with potential combined protection against LB and TBE from the societal perspective. The model expressed time in annual cycles, followed a target population through their lifetime, and applied an annual discounting of 3%. A target population entered the model in a susceptible state, with time dependent probabilities to acquire LB/TBE. Disease manifestations were either resolved within one cycle, or a patient developed LB/TBE sequelae. The vaccination consisted of initial immunization and one revaccination. Estimates of LB/TBE direct and indirect costs, and data on natural course of LB/TBE were obtained from Slovenian databases. Effectiveness of the vaccine with potential combined protection against LB/TBE was derived from studies on existing TBE and LB vaccines, while utility estimates were collected from various literature sources. A vaccine with potential combined protection against LB/TBE was predicted to have an incremental cost of €771,300 per 10,000 vaccinated persons, an incremental utility of 17QALYs and a base-case incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of 46,061€/QALY. Vaccine cost, effectiveness and discount rates were identified as the most influential model parameters. A wholesale price for a vaccine shot of €9.13 would lead to cost savings followed by health gains for the vaccination strategy. The base-case ICER was below commonly accepted thresholds of cost-effectiveness, indicating that a combined LB/TBE vaccine might be a cost-effective option in Slovenia. With early Health Technology Assessment becoming increasingly important, this analysis still represents a rare example of cost-effectiveness assessment prior to market authorisation. Although obviously in such a situation some key parameters are unknown, our model sets up a tool to analyse pharmacoeconomic criteria that can help development of a cost-effective health technology, in this case a combined tick-borne diseases vaccine.

Cost-Effectiveness of Scaling Up Modern Family Planning Interventions in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: An Economic Modeling Analysis in Indonesia and Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: The aim was to estimate the long-term cost-effectiveness of improved family planning interventions to reduce the unmet need in low- and middle-income countries, with Indonesia and Uganda as reference cases. METHODS: The analysis was performed using a Markov decision analytic model, where current situation and several scenarios to reduce the unmet need were incorporated as the comparative strategies. Country-specific evidence was synthesized from the demographic and health survey and published studies. The model simulated the sexual and reproductive health experience of women in the reproductive age range over a time horizon of women's reproductive years, from the healthcare payer perspective. Modeled outcomes included clinical events, costs and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) expressed as cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the impact of parameter uncertainty on modeled outcomes. RESULTS: In the hypothetical cohort of 100,000 women, scenarios to reduce the unmet need for family planning would result in savings within a range of US$230,600-US$895,100 and US$564,400-US$1,865,900 in Indonesia and Uganda, respectively. The interventions would avert an estimated 1859-3780 and 3705-12,230 DALYs in Indonesia and Uganda, respectively. The results of our analysis indicate that scaling up family planning dominates the current situation in all scenarios in both countries, with lower costs and fewer DALYs. These results were robust in sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION: Scaling up family planning interventions could improve women's health outcomes substantially and be cost-effective or even cost saving across a range of scenarios compared to the current situation.

Trends in direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC) use: health benefits and patient preference.

In 2012, the Dutch Health Council published a report addressing barriers for an early and broad introduction of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs). The report raised concerns about the lack of an antidote, adherence, lack of monitoring in the case of overdose and the increased budget impact at DOAC introduction. In the past decade, international studies have shown that DOACs can provide healthcare benefits for a large number of patients. This has led to an increase in the prescription of DOACs, as they are an effective and user-friendly alternative to vitamin K antagonists (VKAs). Unlike VKAs, DOACs do not need monitoring of the international normalized ratio due to more predictable pharmacokinetics. However, the number of prescriptions of DOACs in the Netherlands is still lagging, compared to other European countries. This article highlights the potential health gains in the Netherlands if the use of DOACs were to increase, based on current international experience.

Cost-utility analysis of high-dose treatment for intermediate-susceptible, dose-dependent tuberculosis patients.

SETTING: We proposed to: 1) introduce an intermediate-susceptible, dose-dependent (ISDD) category for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection; and 2) treat patients with M. tuberculosis infection in this category with a high dose of rifampicin (RMP) and isoniazid (INH). OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of our strategy on quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) and costs in a low-income country with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) (Belarus) and a high-income, low MDR-TB prevalence country (The Netherlands). DESIGN: A Markov model comprising 14 health states was used to simulate treatment outcomes and costs accrued over 5 years for a hypothetical cohort of 10 000 patients. One-way sensitivity analysis, probabilistic sensitivity analysis and a scenario analysis were also performed. RESULTS: Our strategy was shown to be cost-effective for Belarus, but not for the Netherlands. At a willingness-to-pay of 50 000 euros per QALY, the probability of our strategy being cost-effective was 50% for the Netherlands and 57% for Belarus. CONCLUSION: The study shows that our strategy could be cost-effective and more efficacious. However, more studies are needed on the outcomes of using higher doses of INH and RMP.